By Dr. Roy Blizzard
After the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE, the reconstruction of Jewish thought was undertaken by the Pharisees, who shaped the later history and character of Jewish life and thought. It was perhaps their concept of God's Kingdom, and their altruistic view of their fellow man that led to the declaration of the Jewish social and religious ethic after the destruction of the Temple, i.e., that study of Torah (תּוֹרָה), recitation of daily prayers, and acts of tzedakah (צְדָקָה, charity towards one's fellow man) replaced the sacrifices of the Temple.
With the destruction of the Temple, the Sadducees no longer had a reason for which to exist. They simply disappeared. However, it appears that the Samaritans, with whom they are frequently identified, adopted some of their views. In the New Testament they are considered to be identical to the Herodians (Mark 12:13), although an exact identification is difficult to establish.
Until the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE, the main concentration of the rabbis in their teaching was on Haggadah (preaching of the great themes of the Bible, rich with allegory, parable, homily, simile, etc.). The common man loved Haggadah, for he was strengthened and encouraged by it. It was spiritual food.
There was also a need for a legal system within the framework of the Jewish community. There was a need for courts and for judges to make rulings and decisions on legal matters. Daily, there were civil judgments to render and decisions to be made as to what was "permitted" and what was "forbidden," what was clean and what was unclean. A system of courts developed in the Jewish community, from the lowest court consisting of just three judges, all the way to the Great Sanhedrin (סנהדרין הגדולה) in Jerusalem, the Supreme Court of the people, with 71 judges. In early Judaism (1st and 2nd centuries BCE and CE), there were three basic courts of law. Every community of less than 120 inhabitants had a bet-din (בֵּית דִּין, "house of judgment") of only three judges who judged civil matters (Sanhedrin 1:1). Communities of more than 120 inhabitants were entitled to a bet-din (בֵּית דִּין) of 23 members, called a Sanhedrin Ketannah (סנהדרין קטנה), or "small Sanhedrin" (Sanhedrin 1:6). The small Sanhedrin judged criminal cases and capital cases as well. The third court was the Sanhedrin Gedolah (סנהדרין גדולה), or "Great Sanhedrin," of 71 members that sat in Jerusalem. This court had essentially unlimited judicial, legislative, and administrative powers. Certain crimes, such as uttering a false prophecy, could be judged only by the Great Sanhedrin (סנהדרין הגדולה) (Sanhedrin 1:5).However, in spite of this elaborate legal system, the place of Halachah (a system of laws) and the percentage of Halachah in the total body of Oral Law was much less than that of Haggadah. It was only after the destruction of the Temple that we note this growing preoccupation on the part of the rabbis with Halachah. Because of the political pressures from without and the internal pressures in Judaism itself, it was a struggle for the people of God to survive. Awesome political and spiritual forces seemed bent on annihilating the people of God.
After the destruction of the Temple, Judaism was in a shambles. Most of the political and nationalistic leaders had been annihilated and only a few of the religious leaders remained. One famous rabbi, Yochanan ben Zakkai (יוחנן בן זכאי), had the intelligence and foresight to correctly predict the impending doom. In 68 CE, before the destruction of the Temple, he had himself carried out of the city of Jerusalem in a coffin by his students to the camp of the Roman general Vespasian. There, in an audience with Vespasian, he prophesied Vespasian's victory and the destruction of the Temple, quoting the passage in Isaiah 10:34: "Lebanon (The Temple) shall fall by a mighty one." Vespasian was sufficiently impressed to grant Yochanan's request to spare the sages of Israel and to allow him and his students to continue their study at Yavne (יבנה) (Jabneh, or Jamnia). Yochanan moved to Yavne and established an academy in association with the bet-din (בֵּית דִּין, "house of judgment") of Yavne, and there he remained. Upon hearing of the destruction of the Temple, he rent his clothes and wept. But he realized that out of the smoldering ruins of the Temple a new Judaism must be built. He immediately converted his school at Yavne into the center of Judaism and transferred to the academy, of which he was Nasi (נשיא, "president"), the functions of the Great Sanhedrin (סנהדרין) of Jerusalem. In this manner, the continuity of spiritual leadership was maintained.
Yochanan remained as the head of the academy and the Sanhedrin (סנהדרין) until he was succeeded in 80 CE by Rabbi Gamaliel II (רבי גמליאל השני), grandson of Rabbi Gamaliel I (רבי גמליאל הראשון), mentioned in Acts 5:34 and 22:3, under whom Paul had studied. Without question, Yochanan did more than any of his contemporaries to preserve Judaism and to prepare the way for it to rise again from the ashes of destruction.
But this new religious leadership had to muster every resource at its disposal and use its wits as never before to preserve the existence of Judaism under these circumstances, so the drift toward Halachah (הֲלָכָה) was natural and inevitable. The rabbis had to take drastic measures to preserve historic Judaism as they saw it.
At the same time that the rabbis were taking drastic measures to expel the internal forces that threatened the structure of Judaism, they also began to more precisely define orthodoxy. Their focus was more and more upon Halachah (הֲלָכָה) to purify and preserve the faith. Thusly, they began to develop a "credo" that defined what it meant to be a Jew and to live as a Jew. It was far less important at this critical time to "sermonize" on the great haggadic (אגדה, aggadic) themes than it was to survive.
By the end of the 1st century CE, there was a strong movement within Judaism toward a more structured religious system, and an attempt to more clearly define "What is a Jew?" Coupled with this was a move away from Haggadah (אגדה) toward Halachah (הֲלָכָה). Until the time of Judah the President (Yehudah HaNasi, יהודה הנשיא) (of the Sanhedrin (סנהדרין)), circa 200 CE, the body of law known as the Oral Law was just that. It was considered equally as the law God gave to Moses at Sinai (Avoth 1:1), but was communicated orally until written down by Judah the President. This body of Oral Law had been assembled by Rabbi Akivah (רבי עקיבא) (ca. 50–135 CE) and was known as the Mishnah (משנה).
Before the time of Rabbi Judah (Rabbi Yehudah HaNasi, רבי יהודה הנשיא), no one had preserved these oral laws and/or traditions except for personal and private use. Once Rabbi Judah broke with tradition and wrote his work for public use, other collections of Oral Law were made, incorporating the material Rabbi Judah had not used in his Mishnah (משנה). One kindred work is known as the Tosephta (תוספתא), "supplement" or “addition." It is about four times larger than the Mishnah and is divided according to the same books and chapters in identical order to the Mishnah, and contains the same type of material as that found in the Mishnah. It was approximately 200 years after Rabbi Judah compiled the Mishnah, at the beginning of the 5th century CE, before the material in the Tosephta was collected and edited.
The Mishnah (משנה) and the Tosephta (תוספתא) contain laws, rulings, and ethical maxims that are divided into six divisions, called "orders": Zeraim (זרעים, "seeds"); Moed (מועד, "festivals"); Nashim (נשים, "women"); Nezikin (נזיקין, "damages"); Kodashim (קדשים, "sacred things"); and Tohorot (טהרות, "purity"). These six divisions are subdivided into 63 chapters called "tractates." Additional material considered a part of the Oral Law was arranged as a commentary on one of the books of the Torah, with interpretations or exegesis for each chapter and verse, and often words. These works are three in number: the Mekhilta (מכילתא), Sifra (ספרא), and Sifre (ספרי).
Mekhilta (מכילתא, "a measuring vessel") is an exegetical commentary on most of the Book of Exodus (chapters 12:1–23:19; 31:12–17; 35:1–3). Sifra (ספרא, "a book") is an exegetical commentary on the entire Book of Leviticus. Sifre (ספרי, "books") contains rabbinic rulings and commentary on large portions of the Books of Numbers and Deuteronomy.
Even these works did not exhaust all of the oral traditions and commentaries that were extant when Rabbi Judah (Rabbi Yehudah HaNasi, רבי יהודה הנשיא) began compiling his Mishnah (משנה). Much additional Oral Law is to be found in the Gemara (גמרא), the commentary on the Mishnah. Many of these additional "oral laws" actually predate the Mishnah of Rabbi Judah. When this material appears in the Gemara, it is labeled Baraita (ברייתא), or extraneous "oral laws," or those not belonging to the Mishnah of Rabbi Judah. Although these oral laws have not been collected together and are scattered throughout the Gemara, they nevertheless form a sixth body of Oral Law. The Gemara, together with the Mishnah, is known as the Talmud (תלמוד). There are two versions of the Talmud, one compiled by Jewish scholars in Babylon (Babylonian Talmud, תלמוד בבלי), and one compiled by Jewish scholars in Palestine (Jerusalem Talmud, תלמוד ירושלמי).
Being the work of two different schools of scholars, the Gemara, or commentary, in each of the versions of the Talmud differs considerably, but the Mishnah in both is the Mishnah of Rabbi Judah. The Babylonian Talmud was completed about 500 CE, approximately 100 years after the completion of the Jerusalem Talmud. The Babylonian Talmud is a gigantic sea of rabbinic learning, consisting of 2,500,000 words, spread over 5,894 folio pages of approximately 10 1/2" x 14" in size. Although the Jerusalem Talmud is also a monumental work, it is ten times smaller (574 folio pages) than the Babylonian Talmud.
The Babylonian Talmud is today the focus of Jewish religious education, and when the word "Talmud" appears alone, it is understood to be the Babylonian Talmud as opposed to the Jerusalem Talmud. The Talmud holds a position of the highest esteem in Orthodox Judaism. To study it, to be illuminated by it, is the goal of every young Orthodox Jewish person. The sages, or scholars, of the Talmud are looked upon, as heroes would be in the secular realm. To the Orthodox, the Talmudic scholar is the real hero of their world.
It is difficult, if not impossible, to give a definitive definition of historic Judaism, as it is not just a religious system of dogmas and creeds. Judaism is unique among other religious systems, in that it is impossible to separate the religious system from the Jewish people (referring once to only those of the tribe of Judah, but now to all Jewish history), or to separate the people from the land, Israel, the land of covenant, the "promised land." Nor can Judaism be separated from its legal system, given to Moses by YHWH at Sinai.
Above all, the fundamental tenet of Judaism is monotheism, the belief in only one God. This belief is epitomized in the statement of Deuteronomy 6:4: "Hear O Israel, the Lord your God is One." Judaism is the guardian of pure monotheistic faith. This one God is all powerful (Omnipotent), all seeing (Omnipresent), and all-knowing (Omniscient).
The God of the Bible is also a God of justice on the one hand, and mercy on the other. He is a God who is concerned with the fortunes of his people, and therefore he is a God of history. Opposed to the pagan deities of the period, far removed from the people and from the world, YHWH (יהוה) is the God who enters into a covenant relationship with his people, with whom he lives in an intimacy of personal fellowship. In this personal fellowship he promises to dwell within the individual (Exodus 25:8; 1 Corinthians 6:19) and direct his paths (Proverbs 3:6). For those who follow after him and hearken to his voice, he is the God who leads his people (El Tzevaot, אֵל צְבָאוֹת), who heals his people (YHWH Yeraphe, יְהוָה רֹפְאֶךָ), who performs miracles for his people (YHWH Nisi, יְהוָה נִסִּי), who sustains, sanctifies, leads, and shows mercy unto. For those who hearken not unto his voice and transgress his commandments, he is at the same time a God of wrath and justice. It is this care and concern for his people that stands in striking contrast to the paganism of that day. Heathenism degraded man and forced him to bow to the whims of capricious gods. Judaism elevated man to the level of YHWH (יהוה) in whose image and likeness he was created (Genesis 1:26ff).
Man, therefore, was both human and divine. Man, according to the rabbis, "is made for two worlds: the world that is now, and the world to come" (Genesis Rabbah (בראשית רבה) VIII). The nature of man in Judaism stands in striking contrast to the heathenism of the ancient world and Christianity of today. Judaism declared that because man was created in the image and likeness of God, he was therefore born into this world basically good. He was what his parents were until the age of accountability (12 for girls and 13 for boys), and therefore, the parents were enjoined to "train up a child in the way he should go; and when he becomes an adolescent [and able to choose for himself], he will continue to walk in it" (Proverbs 22:6). However, at birth the child was endowed with an inclination to do good (yetzer hatov (יצר הטוב)) and an inclination to do evil (yetzer hara (יצר הרע)), i.e., the freedom of choice. In this also he was like God in whose image he was created, with the power to choose good or evil.
Again, this concept of man stands in dramatic contrast to prevailing Christian theology and the doctrine of original sin (first proposed by Augustine in the 5th century CE), in which man is born into this world a sinner and, therefore, from the moment of birth, in need of redemption. Freedom of choice, the right to choose evil or good, is a fundamental principle of Judaism: "See, I have set before you this day life and good, and death and evil;…therefore, choose life" (Deuteronomy 30:15,19). Those who choose life are a part of God's Kingdom.
Kingdom of God is another concept unique to Judaism. Kingdom is first alluded to in Exodus 15:18: "The Lord shall reign for ever and ever." For the rabbis, kingdom was God ruling over his people, who were in turn demonstrating his rule in their lives in action. The rabbis desired for God's kingdom to be extended over all the earth. In this concept of kingdom, we see another unique characteristic of Judaism -the universality of all mankind. Though God's law was communicated through the descendants of Abraham, it was originally intended for all mankind. Israel was chosen to be the vehicle through which all nations of the earth should be blessed. In this concept of the kingdom of God extending to all peoples of the earth, Judaism is again unique. Although in a special way the nation of Israel is God's chosen, yet the righteous of all nations will have their part in the world to come.
Although the gods of the pagan peoples contemporary with Second Temple period Jewry were unique to the particular religious system, the one true God of the Jews, YHWH (יהוה), was the God of all. The Jewish God, YHWH (יהוה) (henceforth, Yahweh) was the creator of the universe, Lord of all and Lord over all. In this regard one characteristic of Yahweh stands out above all others. Yahweh is God of Righteousness (Tzedakah (צְדָקָה)). Yahweh requires righteousness of his people and not sacrifice.
In this sense, Law was not to be considered as something "BAD," or temporary, later to be replaced by something better, (as is generally believed in Christianity), but instead, something "GOOD." Law was true, pure, holy, righteous, just, merciful, perfect. Rather than considered a burden to be borne, Law was considered to be a privilege to be joyfully fulfilled in the daily living of one's life before God.
This concept of Law led naturally to the idea that the highest MOOD of the Hebrew, or Jewish, religion was JOY. The highest form of worship one could offer unto God was, therefore, the study of his "Law," or Torah.
If such was in fact the case, how is it that Jesus seemed to so frequently come into conflict with the Pharisees, frequently accusing them of hypocrisy? The fact is that Jesus himself was, if not an actual Pharisee; closely aligned with them, as was also the Apostle Paul. Jesus' conflict was not with the mainstream of Pharisaic thought, but rather with the hypocritical Pharisee who "makes his phylacteries wide and the fringes (tzitzit) of his garment long." However, Jesus was not the only one to cry out against Pharisaic hypocrisy. In fact, no one hated hypocrisy more than the Pharisees, nor was anyone more severe a critic of hypocrisy than the Pharisees themselves. The Talmud mentions seven classes of Pharisees, which are considered as hypocrites or fools (Yer. Ber. IX 146; Sotah 22b). It is these types of Pharisees Jesus denounced as "hypocrites" and "offspring of vipers," "whitened sepulchers full of dead men's bones," who "strain at a gnat and swallow a camel" (Matthew 6:2-5,16; 12:34; 23:24-27). So also are hypocrites denounced by the Pharisees themselves, and Jesus instructs his disciples to "do as the Pharisees, who sit on Moses' seat, instruct you to do; but don't do as they do, because they don't do what they say" (Matthew 23:1-4). In reality, Jesus, as a Pharisee, is a friend to the Pharisees, and vice versa.
Perhaps the principal reason there is such an affinity with the teaching of Jesus on the part of the Pharisees is due in part to the essential doctrine of the Pharisee, which is often overlooked, that of the Messianic hope. It is this doctrine that formed the foundation of Pharisaic thought. The coming of Messiah would herald the establishment of God's Kingdom.
This concept of the Kingdom of God was central to Pharisaic belief and instruction. The hope of the Pharisee was that God's rule should be extended over all the earth and that he should "reign forever and ever" (Exodus 15:18). God's Kingship necessitated the performance of God's commandments both as regards God as ruler, and as regards one's relationship to his fellow man. Therefore, the Pharisaic ethos was, "Be holy, as the Lord your God is holy" (Leviticus 19:2).
The principal institution was, and ideally remains, the home the husband and wife joined together training their children "in the way they should go." Basic religious education centered around the home, and was the parents' responsibility. However, the synagogue was a convenient institution, not only for prayer and worship, but also as the focus or center of community activities. However, nothing in Jewish Law demanded that a Jew attend synagogue a single day in his life in order to be a good Jew. Again, the principal institution and the foundation of Jewish society was the home.
By the 1st/2nd centuries BCE, religious education had begun to spread beyond the home into a more formal program of education that centered around another Jewish institution, the bet sefer (secondary school) and the bet midrash (high school). By the end of the 1st century CE, the educational institution in Judaism had become the most important, even exceeding in importance the synagogue, the place of prayer and worship.
Much emphasis is placed upon the importance of study in Judaism. In the Mishnah (Oral Law) it is recorded:
At five years [the age is reached] for [the study of] Scriptures, at ten for [the study of] the Mishnah (משנה), at thirteen for the Mitzvoth (מצוות, "commandments"), at fifteen for [the study of] the Talmud (תלמוד), at eighteen for marriage, at twenty for pursuing one's vocation, at thirty for [moving out in one's full vigor or strength and power] strength… (Pirkei Avot (פרקי אבות), Chapters of the Fathers, V, 25).
Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch (1808-88), in his commentary on the above quotation, from Chapters of the Fathers (Pirke Avoth), wrote:
When it is said that at the age of five one is ready for the study of scriptures, and at ten for the study of Mishnah, it does not mean that a boy need study the Scriptures only until he is ten years old, the Mishnah until he is fifteen, that he need study the Talmud no longer than until his eighteenth or twentieth year, and that thereafter the study of Torah [LAW] must yield place to other pursuits. Quite the contrary it is pointed out here that it is incumbent upon us to occupy ourselves with the Scriptures, as well as with the Mishnah and the Talmud throughout our lives. We are bidden to return to this sacred pursuit over and over again, for the Torah [LAW] is the one inexhaustible source of knowledge of what is good and true and worthwhile, and the longer and the more faithfully we occupy ourselves with it, the broader and stronger will our power of spiritual vision grow. Therefore, let the Torah [LAW] remain at your side even when you are old and when your energies for all other pursuits have declined, and do not depart from it as long as you live, for you can acquire no greater consecration for your endeavors. (Chapters of the Fathers, Translation and Commentary by Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, Philipp Feldheim, Inc., New York, 1967, 96).
Although the quote from the Mishnah dates from 165-200 CE, it certainly reflects the emphasis placed upon study in the 1st and 2nd centuries BCE/CE in Judaism.
It is this theme of Tzedakah that underlies the biblical text and historic Judaism. All the laws of Judaism were designed to show man how he was to live before God and with his fellow man. The Levitical system with its focus on sacrifice and service was in reality designed to direct a spiritual people to a God to be served in spirit and in truth. In the midst of the sacrificial system, the prophets warn, "Has the Lord as great a delight in burnt offerings and sacrifices, as in obeying the voice of the Lord? Behold, to obey is better than sacrifice and to hearken than the fat of rams" (1 Samuel 15:22).
Because kingdom extends to all, Judaism is not, as other religions (chiefly Christianity), a system of creeds or beliefs upon which eternal life depends; rather, Judaism is a way of life; the way in which the righteous should walk. Again, the recurring theme of tzedakah, or righteousness, is central to life in the world. Righteousness in this sense is not holiness, but right living in this world before God and with one's fellow man. This "right living" extended to the care and concern for one's neighbor and all those who were in need. Passages such as Psalm 37 reflect this depth of earthly relationships with one's fellow man: "…the righteous showeth mercy, and giveth. Such as these shall be blessed of Him and shall inherit the earth."
Alongside of the development of "rabbinic" Judaism is a growing interest in the esoteric and mystical element in Jewish thought. Perhaps this esoteric element can be traced back to the 2nd/3rd centuries BCE, but it begins to blossom under the influence of the Hellenistic thought of the 3rd and fourth4th centuries CE. It is during the Middle Ages that the mystical stream of Jewish thought reaches its zenith of popularity. This mystical and esoteric element was known as Kabbalah, or that which was "received," e.g. "received doctrine." In, the 16th century, the Kabbalists flocked to the city of Safad, in northern Galilee, and made it their religious center. The principal exponent of Kabbalah was Rabbi Isaac Luria, better known as Ha'ari, "the Lion." His many disciples were known as Gurie Ha'ari, or "the lion's cubs."
In Safad, many scholars and sages achieved great fame. One was Rabbi Joseph Caro, author of Shulchan Aruch, or the "set table," and another was Rabbi Jacob Bierav, who advocated restoration of the Sanhedrin and believed that from Safad enlightenment and learning would spread to the entire world of Judaism. The synagogues of some of the early sages of Kabbalah are still being used in Safad today, and may be visited by visitors to that city.
The principal work in Kabbalah is the Zohar, or "brightness," a document generally attributed to Moses de Leon, circa 1280-1286. In this work, the mystical and the symbolic is exalted above the legal and the literal, and secret meanings are given to every word, and even to every letter of the Torah. As Kabbalah radiated out from Safad, many governments developed under the influence of some great sage or spiritual leader, or developed unique concepts peculiar to the area or country to which it spread. From the 17th century and onward, a more balanced view, emphasizing the ethical and moral foundations of Kabbalah, developed in literary form by many great preachers until well into the 19th century. The influence of Kabbalah on Judaism was great, and was one of the most powerful movements ever to affect the development of Judaism. (For an excellent treatment of Kabbalah, see the Encyclopedia Judaica, Vol. X, 489-653.)
As a movement within Judaism, Kabbalah probably had more influence upon the oriental element in Judaism than upon the occidental element. Perhaps from as early as the Second Temple period, there were Jews in Spain. Throughout the centuries they became an important economic and political force in that country so much so, that in 1492 a decree was issued that all Jews in Spain must either convert to Christianity or leave. This decree remained in force in Spain until 1968. Many did convert, but most left. Of those that left, the larger percentage migrated to eastern countries, many which in recent history have been a part of the Arab world. These Jews became known as the Sephardim, after the Hebrew word for Spain, Sepharad. Today, the oriental Jews are generally known as the Sephardim, as opposed to the European Jews that are, generally called Ashkenazim, after the Hebrew word for Germany, Ashkenaz. The Ashkenazim are principally those Jews whose background is western, or European, as opposed to eastern, or Oriental.
Although the fundamental tenets of Judaism remain basically the same, for both the Sephardic and the Ashkenazi Jew, yet there remains a considerable difference in each one's approach to law. On the one hand, the Sephardic Jew is more oriented toward Kabbalah and the mystical and emotional element in Judaism. As a result, he tends to be more liberal when it comes to the observance of certain points of law. On the other hand, the Ashkenazi is oriented more toward Halachah and tends to take a more severe or legalistic approach to the observance of the 613 Commandments of Law.
These two approaches to Torah, coupled with the difference in the cultural background of the Ashkenazi and the Sepharadi, has led to certain tensions in Israel following their return to Israel from the lands of Diaspora. In general terms, it can be said that it is the Ashkenazis who occupy the most influential positions in the government, military politics, and religious office. Basically, they serve in the most favorable positions and/or occupations in the country. Additionally, although it would not want to be admitted, the Ashkenazi generally tends to look down on the Sepharadi in subtle ways that frequently lead to increased tensions between the two.
On the other hand, the Sepharadi, generally speaking, tends to occupy positions of a more menial nature and those associated with certain types of businesses and trades oriented toward arts and crafts. The Sepharadim, because of their social and economic status in the country, tend to resent the Ashkenazim.
Complicating the social and cultural picture in Israel today is the current situation in Judaism religiously. Although worldwide Judaism can be said to be divided into three principal groups, Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform, it is probably more correct to speak of just two main streams in Jewish thought today, that of the legalistic or Orthodox approach to Torah, and that of the more liberal, or Reform. Thus, Judaism presents two streams or currents of thought running parallel to each other: the one, more conservative, legalistic, emphasizing the nationalistic, the mystical, the ritualistic, the spiritual; the other, the more liberal, progressive, rational. These two basic streams of thought continue to cause certain tensions in Judaism as it seeks to undertake God's divine purpose, both for the Jew and for the world.
On the final note, it should be said, however, that these tensions cannot be likened to those that exist in Christianity, the offspring of Judaism. Whereas tensions exist, both religious and cultural, there still prevails, a basic concept of historical, religious, and nationalistic purpose that ultimately draws all Jews together in a oneness of desire to both survive and fulfill God's eternal purpose. Opposed to this sense of a religious, historical, and nationalistic purpose, totally foreign to Christian thinking, is a lack of any sense of historical, cultural, or religious roots. The unfortunate result of Christianity's failure to understand her historical and religious Jewish roots has, to a large degree, contributed to the over 400 separatist denominations or sects within Christianity and a lack of any sense of historical, national, or religious purpose such as that which exists in Judaism.
