By Dr. Roy Blizzard
The following article is an article on Judaism that l wrote several years ago for The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: The article was published in a much-condensed form, as I knew it would be. However, I wrote the article the way I wanted it and not necessarily the way the publishers of the I.S.B.E. wanted it. I am going to share with you the article as it was originally written. Because of the length of the article, it will be posted in installments here on Bible Scholars.
Judaism can be defined as the outgrowth of biblical faith. Prior to Abraham, the father of the Hebrew nation, biblical faith is the simple belief in the one and only God, YHWH. YHWH is the name by which the biblical God, Elohim, is known. With Abraham, we have the beginning of the Hebrew nation, the nation elected by YHWH to be the perpetuator of biblical faith. The religion of Abraham was a simple theocracy in which every man served as a priest, or one who had the capacity to draw near to God. Biblically, the period is known as the Patriarchal period; during which the family head, or patriarch, ruled his family group. Abraham's son (by his wife Sarah), Isaac succeeded his father as the tribal head. Isaac was, in turn, succeeded by his son, Jacob. Jacob, his wives, their handmaidens who also bore children to Jacob, and all the members of his family, as well as their servants, ultimately wound up in Egypt, where they sojourned for a period of approximately 400 years. At the end of their 400 years stay in Egypt, God raised up a man by the name of Moses to lead the descendants of Jacob, known as “Israelites," back to Cannan, the land promised by God to Abraham and his descendants. On their journey back to Canaan, Moses and the children of Israel received the "Law of God" at Mt. Sinai. The "Law" given by God to Moses became the system of religious rules and regulations by which God's "chosen" people were to live.
Back in Canaan, the Israelites were divided into tribes according to the 12 sons of Jacob. From their return to Canaan until the United Hebrew Monarchy with Saul, David, and Solomon, the nation of Israel consisted of a nation of loosely connected tribes. With David, the tribes were united into a confederation of tribes with their religious center at Jerusalem. After the death of Solomon, David's son, the 12 tribes were divided into Israel (ten tribes), to the north in Canaan, and Judah (2 tribes), to the south.
In 722/721 B.C.E., the Northern Kingdom of Israel was carried away into Assyrian captivity under Sargon I. In Assyria they intermarried and basically lost their national identity. Those left behind in Israel also intermarried, and reappeared on the historical scene as the Samaritans, the hated half-blood Jew of the time of Ezra and Nehemiah, as well as the time of Jesus. The Southern Kingdom of Judah continued from the division in 931 B.C.E. until 586 B.C.E., when they were carried into Babylonian captivity by Nebuchadnezzar.
From the time of Abraham until the time of the return to the Southern the Kingdom of Judah from exile in Babylon, the faith of the Bible can best be called the Hebrew religion. It is only after the period of the Babylonian exile (606 B.C.E.-538 B.C.E.) that the biblical faith can be accurately called Judaism.
In 536 B.C.E. a small band of exiles (approximately 40,000), remnants of the Southern Kingdom of Judah, returned to Jerusalem from Babylon and reinstituted YHWH worship in the land. They rebuilt the Temple of YHWH, destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar in 586 B.C.E., and rededicated it to YHWH in 516 B.C.E. For those of the Southern Kingdom carried into exile, Babylon served as the crucible in which the gold of YHWH worship was refined and that a relatively stable religious system emerged out of an earlier biblical YHWH-ism. Because it was basically centered around the Tempie of YHWH in Jerusalem and was located in the territory of the old Southern Kingdom of Judah, this refined religious system was known as Judaism. Although on the one hand God's kingdom extended to all men, on the other there is that sense in which the Jews are a separate people. In this sense they were to refrain from intermarriage with pagan peoples and to keep themselves separate from pagan practices which would lead to impurity and sin. This separateness was intricately interwoven with the concept of nationalism. It was impossible to separate the people from their religion or their, religion from their nation, i.e., Israel. In this concept of nationalism, there is to be found a sense of mission. It is the mission of the nation to be the protector and promulgator of YHWH worship and to serve as the guardian of the faith. In this concept of nationalism, it is further impossible to separate the people from their land. Israel is both a nation as well as a place: a special place above all others on the face of the earth, Eretz Yisrael, the land of Israel.
In its separateness from all other religions and peoples, other unique features developed within Judaism, one of the most important being its system of laws. However, again, Judaism's concept of law cannot be compared to a system of dogmas or creed as in other religions. Observance of law was a privilege granted by God to his special people; it was not so much for keeping man from sin as it was to instruct him how to live before God and with his fellow man. These laws are known as the taryag mitzvot (תרי"ג מצוות), or 613 commandments. However, the Hebrew word mitzvah (מצווה) does not carry the same connotation of "commandment" as does the English, but rather, "a good work." Accordingly, there were 24 positive mitzvot (מצוות) and 36 negative mitzvot (מצוות). In other words, ... you shall, and ... you shall not. It was these 613 laws that separated Israel and the Jew from all other nations and peoples.
It is, in fact, an understanding of this concept of Law that assists our understanding the principal institutions in Judaism that developed historically after the period of the Babylonian exile. Some scholars attribute the canonization of Jewish scripture and law to Ezra and his contemporaries around 400 B.C.E.
In this new period in biblical history, known as the Second Temple Period, the religious system that emerges retains most of the fundamental theological concepts of historic biblical faith, while at the same time introducing us to new institutions (synagogue, or bet-kenesset, bet-seder, bet-midrash), and to new religious groups such, as the Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, etc.). Just exactly when, how, and why the institution of the synagogue (Greek for "assembly," or bet-kenesset in Hebrew) originated is impossible to pinpoint. However, by the first centuries B.C.E./C.E., it was already a well-established institution in Eretz Israel. While the Temple of YVWH was still standing, it served principally as an institution of prayer and worship. It was not yet the formalized religious institution that developed after the destruction of the Temple.
We know much today about the wondering, peripatetic rabbi/teacher of this period. There were hundreds of rabbis/teachers traversing the land of Israel, teaching even in the most remote, parts of the land. The Talmud informs us of teaching methods of instruction utilized by the rabbis in this period. As early as the time of Hillel (d. 30 C.E.) various methods of rabbinic instruction had been formulated. These were known as the seven rules of Hillel, which were later expanded to thirteen by Rabbi lshmael. As far as the education of small children was concerned, again the Talmud is replete with references to the methods used by the rabbis in teaching their pupils the methods of memorizing the alphabet, the first of the biblical books used in instructing small children (Leviticus-dealing with laws of purity; the rabbis said, "let those who are pure study first those things that relate to purity"), methods used in learning to write, etc. It can safely be said that the emphasis in biblical faith is upon teaching and study rather than religious observance. Because of the emphasis placed in Judaism upon teaching and study, it was natural that various schools of biblical interpretation (or sects) should develop out of the mainstream of Jewish religious thought.
In the 1st century B.C.E./C.E., there were many such sects. However, because of space, we will briefly note those most commonly known: the Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, Zealots, Samaritans, and Herodians. It is difficult to say with any degree of certainty when the Pharisees arose as a separate sect within Judaism.
According to most authorities, it was sometime during the 2nd century B.C.E. When we are first introduced to them. They appear as an already powerful political party in opposition to the sect of the Sadducees. The Hebrew word פְּרוּשִׁים (perushim), which is transliterated as “Pharisees" in English, means literally "interpreters." Interpreters, of course, of the Law. It was the Pharisees who were the guardians of the faith. As such, they were rigid in their observance of the rituals they interpreted as being an indication of holiness and righteousness. Central to their belief in the proper interpretation of law was study of Torah. Instruction of Torah was uniquely the focus of Pharisaism, and therefore, they established synagogues and schools everywhere. Knowledge of Torah was the power for the education of the Jewish people. Every father was enjoined to see that his son was instructed in the Law of God.
Whereas the Sadducees rejected all but the written law, the Pharisees claimed Mosaical authority for their ritual observances. They established laws for spiritual cleansing, benedictions for all occasions, rules against the mingling of different kinds of foods at meals, daily recital of the Shema, the wearing of phylacteries, regular daily prayers, and commanded all that they should “make a fence around the Law (Avoth 1:1). This dictum was for the purpose of keeping God’s people from participating in forbidden practices.
Given only surface examination, it would seem that the Pharisees were unusually strict and unbending in their interpretation and application of law, but such is not entirely true. In fact, it was the Pharisees who were often the more lenient and considerate, especially when it came to human relations and feelings. For example, the Sadducees interpreted "an eye for an eye" literally, whereas the Pharisees allowed adequate monetary compensation. While the Sadducees required strict observance of the laws of virginity and levirate laws, the Pharisees followed a course of decency and common sense. The Sadducees' observance of the feasts and festivals was sterile and austere; the Pharisees believed these days to be days of joy and gladness. But perhaps the greatest difference of all was the esteem with which the Pharisees regarded women. They granted to women the privilege of lighting the Sabbath candles, of welcoming the "Queen Sabbath" into the home. They exalted women and recognized them as the builder and caretaker of the home. Josephus relates (Antiquities XVll,2,4) that it was for just that reason that the Pharisees were held in such high esteem by Jewish women. Josephus further relates that they were virtuous and sober, and despised luxuries.
The Sadducees, claiming to be descendants of Zaddok, the chief priest from the days of the United Hebrew Monarchy with David and Solomon (I Kings 1 :34; 2:35; 1 Chronicles 29:22), represented the priestly aristocracy. It was, according to Josephus (Antiquities 6, 10, 13), the party of the rich. Little is actually known about their religious views except what is written in the New Testament or in Josephus.
As noted above, they rejected all but the written law, and were harsh in their treatment of the criminal and strict in functions relating to the Temple arid to sacrifice. From Mark 12:12, they apparently did not believe in a resurrection or the immortality of the soul. In Acts 23:8 it is stated that they also denied the existence of either angels or demons.
The Essenes can be identified as an ascetic, communal sect that was probably an offshoot of the Hasidim of the period prior to the Maccabean Revolt (i.e., 2nd century B.C.E./ end of 1st century C.E.). The ancient historians, Pliny, Josephus, and Hippolytus, all have much to say about them in their writings, although at times differing in their descriptions considerably.
Little can be said with certainty about the etymology of the name, but perhaps as good guess as any is that it derives from the Aramaic asa, or to “heal.” In this sense it would refer to the healing of the total man, both body and spirit.
The Essenes of Pliny, Josephus, Hippolytus, and other early historians are described as communalistic, despising any material possessions. Two groups are mentioned by Josephus, one celibate, and the other not celibate. All emphasized strict observance of ritual, especially observance of the Sabbath and of ritual immersion, which was practiced daily. They rejected the Temple and Temple observances, considering them corrupt; and went out into the wilderness to await the coming of the Lord. In this regard we add an interesting note from the community of Qumran frequently associated with the Essenes, that gave us the Dead Sea Scrolls. In the complete Isaiah scroll from Qumran (Isa. Q1), the scroll shows clear oil stains from hands at the passage in 40:3: “…the voice of one crying:
Prepare in the desert
A highway for YHWH;
In the dry places make straight
A pathway for our God.”
Apparently, this passage was frequently read by the community, as it gave meaning to their being with either the Essenes or the inhabitants of Qumran.
The Herodians were also called Boethusians, after Boethus, whose daughter Mariamne was one of the wives of King Herod the Great. As a priestly party they are often identified with the Sadducees previously noted. If not identical with the Sadducees, they at least sided with them in their opposition to the Pharisees. ·
Of all the major sects of the Jews, the historical background of the Samaritans (with exception of the followers of Jesus) is the best attested. In 932 B.C.E. after the death of Solomon, the Kingdom of Israel was divided--ten tribes to the North (Israel); and two tribes to the South (Judah). The Northern Kingdom of Israel basically rejected YHWH worship and the Temple of Jerusalem and was constantly in conflict with the kings of the Southern kingdom. In 722/721 B.C.E., the Northern Kingdom (known as Samaria after the fame of their capital city of Samaria, built by King Omri in the 9th century B.C.E.) was defeated by Sargon II of Assyria, and the capital city of Samaria was destroyed. The cylinder of Sargon, a baked clay prism chronicling the reign of Sargon II, describes the battle and states that Sargon carried away 27,290 inhabitants of the country. For some unknown reason, perhaps as a military precaution; Sargon repopulated the Northern Kingdom with peoples from other far-off, conquered countries. Only the poorer and uneducated population of the conquered kingdom remained behind in the land, and many of these 'intermarried with the alien settlers. This was the historical situation of the Northern Kingdom when the Old Testament comes to a close.
During the Hellenistic period, with the blessings of Alexander the Great (ca. 332), a Temple was built on Mt. Gerizim (הר גריזים), overlooking the ancient city of Shechem (שכם). From that day until the present, Mt. Gerizim has remained the center of Samaritan worship. This Temple stood for about 200 years until it was destroyed, and Samaria was occupied by John Hyrcanus (יוחנן הורקנוס) of Judah. From that time onward, there was much enmity between the Samaritans and the Jews — so much so, that by the time of Herod the Great (הורדוס הגדול), the Samaritans usually sided with the enemies of the Jews. During the reign of Herod the Great, Samaria was rebuilt and refurbished in his typical magnificent manner, and the name of the city was changed to Sebaste (Σεβαστή in Greek), in honor of Augustus Caesar ("Sebaste" in Greek). During the time of Vespasian, the father of Titus, the city of Shechem was conquered by the Romans, who named it Flavia Neapolis (Φλαβία Νεάπολις), the Arabic corruption of which gives us the modern name, Nablus (נבלוס). During the Bar Kochbah Revolt (מרד בר כוכבא) (132–135 C.E.), the Samaritans again sided with the Romans against the Jews, and as a result, the Romans assisted in the rebuilding of the Temple on Mt. Gerizim. This Temple stood until 484 C.E., when it was again destroyed, and from that time until today, the fortunes of the Samaritans decreased until only a small and insignificant number remain. From the 5th century B.C.E. onward, the relationship between Jew and Samaritan was, in the main, hostile, although their basic religious dogmas are closely related to, if not identical with, those of the Jews. They, of course, considered Mt. Gerizim to be the sacred place of worship as opposed to Jerusalem. They accepted only the Torah (תורה) as spiritually valid, and in this regard, were probably similar in thought to the Sadducees (צדוקים). Some suggest that they also rejected the belief in angels and demons, as well as the immortality of the soul. Regarding God, they espoused the same monotheistic concept as the Jews. Moses was a prophet, and God gave His perfect law to him. As far as a Messiah concept is concerned, the Samaritans believed that the Taheb (תאהב) would come, live 110 years, and then die. Afterwards would follow the resurrection and the final judgment.
As is easily discerned, the theology of the Samaritan religion is not unlike that of Judaism. This is no doubt due to the immediate association with the religious belief they both shared in common as well as their close geographical proximity. Only a small number of Samaritans are alive today, and their principal struggle is with continued future existence as opposed to learning. Their religious center continues to be Mt. Gerizim and they continue to offer annual sacrifices there. However, scattered and surrounded as they are by hostile peoples, their future seems bleak.
"Zealot" (Hebrew, kannaim (קנאים)) was the name given to those individuals who vigorously opposed the dominion of pagan Rome or idolatry of any kind. On occasion they are also associated with the Essenes (איסיים). Therefore, it is difficult to pinpoint their origin or to specifically enumerate their beliefs. As a general term, kannaim (קנאים) was the name by which all those who were zealous for the honor and sanctity of the Law and the Temple services were known. If not actually part of the sect, they were at least in sympathy with the sect of the Pharisees (פרושים), especially those of the more legalistic school of Shammai (שמאי).
Perhaps their origin can be associated with the Maccabean Revolt in the 2nd century B.C.E. In I Maccabees 2:27, Mattathias' call, "Whosoever is zealous of the Law, and maintains the covenant, let him follow me," might be pointed to as the organizational call to religious and national defense. Josephus has much to say about the Zealots, frequently called by him, sicarii (cut-throats, murderers), after the dagger (sicae) they wore in their cloaks, and with which they would kill anyone they felt to be transgressing the law, especially idolatry. It was because of this latter transgression that they so vigorously resisted Herod. During his rule, he introduced institutions contrary to the spirit of Judaism, especially the pagan images to which homage was to be paid. During the Jewish Revolt (60-73 C.E.), the Zealots became an aggressive and powerful political force with which to be reckoned. They were relentless in their opposition to Rome, and it was under the leadership of Eleazar ben Yair that the Zealots conquered the mighty fortress of Masada and held out against the Romans for three years after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. Their death by suicide, rather than being taken by the Romans, is well known by every student of Jewish history and is a dramatic indication of their contempt for Rome. It’s interesting, and perhaps significant, that many scroll fragments were unearthed in the archaeological discoveries at Masada. Most of these were identical in age and script type (some apparently written by hand) to those excavated at the Dead Sea community of Qumran. It is for this reason, as well as association of the Zealots with the Essenes by Hippolytus and others, that some scholars now question the identification of the inhabitants of Qumran with the typical Essene of the 1st century B.C.E./C.E.
Jewish history has established throughout the centuries since Masada and Bar Kochbah that study of Torah and acts of tzedakah are of far greater importance than Temple and state, but the Zealot of old can find his counterpart in the Israeli of today who deems nationalism essential to the survival of historical Judaism.
The sect that was to have the greatest effect on historic Judaism was that of Messianism, with Jesus of Nazareth and his followers. Although historically the movement ultimately led to the Christianity of the third and fourth centuries C.E. and following, at its inception, it was a movement strictly within the framework of historic, Pharisaic Judaism of the 1st century C.E.
Jesus, a Jewish rabbi from Nazareth, appeared on the historical scene around 27 C.E., preaching and teaching throughout the land of Israel. In a very rabbinic way he claimed to be the Messiah of God, and that he had come to "seek and to save those that which are lost" and to establish his Kingdom. "Kingdom," a central theme in Judaism, became for Jesus, those who followed him and who demonstrate his rule in their lives and in action.
From its inception this was a movement strictly within the bounds of historic Judaism. Therefore, all those who followed after him were Jews. Even the religious leaders of his day-scribes, Pharisees, rulers of the Jews-followed after him and listened to his teaching eagerly. It was only the corrupt spiritual leaders of his day that manifested hostility to his teaching, and it was they that ultimately conspired for his death. It is however, a grave error to say that the Jews crucified Jesus or that they never accepted him, as is commonly believed in modern Christianity. In fact, it was the Jews who did follow him, everywhere he went. It was the Jews who publicly proclaimed him as the "Son of David" and cast their garments in his path as he rode into Jerusalem, thusly proclaiming him to be the fulfillment of Zachariah 9:9, the promised King that was to come, having salvation in his hand.
After his crucifixion at the hands of the Romans and his resurrection, it was Jews from all over the country that accepted him as Messiah during the "feast of weeks" (Shavuot (שבועות)) in 30 C.E. When the Jerusalem Council convened under the leadership of James (יעקב), the brother of Jesus, it is estimated that there were 50,000 to 60,000 "believers," as they called themselves, in the city of Jerusalem alone. By 90 C.E., the number of the believing Jews had grown to such a degree that in many parts of the country they outnumbered those Jews who had not accepted Jesus as Messiah. Their great numbers finally posed a threat to the whole structure of historic Judaism.
In desperation, a special rabbinical council was called by Rabbi Gamaliel II (רבי גמליאל השני) (grandson of Gamaliel I (רבי גמליאל הראשון), under whom Paul had studied), to deal with the specific question, “What are we going to do about all these minim (מינים, "sectarians," as they were called, a play on the word ma'amin (מאמין), or "believers")?" An ingenious solution was found. Into the 18 Oral Blessings, recited in the synagogue every Sabbath, a slight modification was made on the 12th blessing, so that a curse was pronounced on all the sectarians, heathens, and notzrim (נוצרים). Of course, the believers would not pronounce this curse upon themselves, and it ultimately led to their departure from the synagogue and the mainstream Jewish religious activity. However, this was a slow process in Israel, and it seems, from recent archaeological excavations at Capernaum (כפר נחום), that the believing Jews (the notzrim (נוצרים)) worshipped alongside those of historic Judaism in a relatively harmonious context well into the 4th century C.E.
It is only after the non-Jews were admitted into the fellowship of the believers and the "Church" spread to the west that a gradual departure from the basic foundations of historic Judaism took place in the movement of those who accepted Jesus of Nazareth as Messiah. As the movement moved to the west and the non-Jewish Church became stronger and stronger and came in contact with the philosophies of Hellenism, the seeds of departure from the original Jewish foundation were sown. They were planted in western soil by Hellenistic (Greek) hands, and soon the basic theologies of early Messianism underwent a drastic modification that found its full fruition in the ecclesiastical Church of the 4th century C.E. and onward. These changes were so radical that there is little resemblance between the Christianity of the 20th century and the Jewish Messianism of the 1st century.
The following examples show the principal theological difference between historical Judaism, or biblical faith, and the ecclesiastical Christianity that developed and formalized from the 4th century C.E. and onward.
- Nature of God
Judaism: Monotheism (One God)
Christianity: Trinity or Tri-Theism--a doctrine which was proposed by Athanasius in the 4th century
- Nature of Man
Judaism: Unity of body and spirit
Christianity: Triune or Trinity of body, soul and spirit
- Nature of Sin
Judaism: Man is born good. Until Bar Mitzvah he is what his parents are. From the age of 13 he is considered a responsible adult who can choose to do good or do evil.
Christianity: Original sin. Man is born evil, a victim of Adam's original sin. This was first proposed by Augustine in the 5th century C.E.
- Forgiveness of Sin
Judaism: There is no provision for atonement for the "willful" sin. The person is simply cut off from God. The Jewish view cuts the foundation from under the doctrine of "eternal security" and the resultant heresy of antinomianism.
Christianity: Man may sin in this life and still be pardoned in the next. This doctrine led to the concept of purgatory, final restitution of all things, etc.
- Nature of the Devil
Judaism: It is a common noun meaning an “adversary” who opposes and obstructs.
Christianity: Dualism-there are two equally powerful forces, one evil, the other good.
- Marriage and Sex
Judaism: Sex was ordained by God and is holy and pure in the bonds of marriage.
Christianity: The act of sex was the "original sin," and is always bad, even among the married and for procreation, and is always a "venial sin."
- Organizational Structure of the Community
Judaism: The synagogue replaced the Temple. The home in a sense, can replace the synagogue. The synagogue and its functionaries are equally involved in the religious and secular life of the community. It emphasizes community participation in acts of charity (tzedakah or righteousness).
Christianity: · Church is a building, denomination, or something one does on Sunday. It is ecclesiastical and hierarchical. Church is a religious service rather than a community.
- Mission of the Synagogue/Church
Judaism: Teaching and study of Torah.
Christianity: Preaching and evangelizing, with little emphasis on study or Spiritual growth.
- Emunah - Faith or Faithfulness to God is a verb.
Judaism: Faith equals action towards God with good deeds.
Christianity: Faith in God, elevating belief above tangible action.
- Religious Merit
Judaism: Merit in acts of tzedakah, or charity towards others.
Christianity: Merit in suffering, asceticism and martyrdom.
- Prophecy or Eschatology
Judaism: The Jewish perspective is recorded in the Mishnah (Oral Torah), Hagigah 2:1 where it is stated that it would have been better to have never been born if one preoccupied themselves with these four questions…what is above?; what is below?; what is in the future?; what is in the past?
Christianity: Jesus is coming soon. The time of the end is at hand.
Although many other examples could be given, these are sufficient to illustrate the vast gulf between historic Judaism and contemporary Christianity. This gulf should serve as a call to Christianity to move back closer to her historic "Hebrew" roots.
